Integrated Judicial System: India has a single hierarchy of courts, unlike the dual system in the USA, with the Supreme Court at the top, followed by High Courts and subordinate courts.

Supreme Court: The apex court, guardian of the Constitution, and final interpreter of law. Possesses Original (Article 131), Appellate (Articles 132-136), and Advisory (Article 143) jurisdictions.

High Courts: Apex judicial body in a state, with original and appellate jurisdiction, power of superintendence over subordinate courts (Articles 225-227), and writ jurisdiction (Article 226).

Subordinate Courts: District and Sessions Courts, Civil and Criminal courts, etc., at the district and lower levels, administered by High Courts.

Judicial Review: The power to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution (Articles 13, 32, 226).

Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Evolved through judicial activism, allowing public-spirited citizens to seek justice for others, expanding access to justice.

Appointment of Judges: Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts are appointed through the Collegium system, while subordinate judges are appointed through state judicial services examinations.

Role: Upholding the rule of law, protecting fundamental rights, interpreting the Constitution, ensuring justice, and acting as a check on the executive and legislature.

Independence: Safeguarded by various constitutional provisions such as security of tenure, fixed service conditions, and prohibition on discussion of judges' conduct in Parliament.

Integrated Judicial System: India has a single hierarchy of courts, unlike the dual system in the USA, with the Supreme Court at the top, followed by High Courts and subordinate courts.

Supreme Court: The apex court, guardian of the Constitution, and final interpreter of law. Possesses Original (Article 131), Appellate (Articles 132-136), and Advisory (Article 143) jurisdictions.

High Courts: Apex judicial body in a state, with original and appellate jurisdiction, power of superintendence over subordinate courts (Articles 225-227), and writ jurisdiction (Article 226).

Subordinate Courts: District and Sessions Courts, Civil and Criminal courts, etc., at the district and lower levels, administered by High Courts.

Judicial Review: The power to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional if they violate the Constitution (Articles 13, 32, 226).

Public Interest Litigation (PIL): Evolved through judicial activism, allowing public-spirited citizens to seek justice for others, expanding access to justice.

Appointment of Judges: Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts are appointed through the Collegium system, while subordinate judges are appointed through state judicial services examinations.

Role: Upholding the rule of law, protecting fundamental rights, interpreting the Constitution, ensuring justice, and acting as a check on the executive and legislature.

Independence: Safeguarded by various constitutional provisions such as security of tenure, fixed service conditions, and prohibition on discussion of judges' conduct in Parliament.