2 Jan 2026·Source: The Indian Express

3 min

Environment & EcologyInternational RelationsEconomyEXPLAINED

Paris Agreement at 10: Shifting Climate Narrative and Global Challenges

As Paris Agreement turns 10, nations grapple with climate action, equity, and the path ahead.

Photo by Mika Baumeister

Background Context

The Paris Agreement (2015) succeeded the Kyoto Protocol, moving from a top-down approach with binding targets for developed nations to a bottom-up system where all countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). This shift aimed for universal participation.

Why It Matters Now

The article is relevant as the Paris Agreement approaches its 10-year mark, prompting a review of its effectiveness, the outcomes of the Global Stocktake at COP28, and ongoing debates about climate finance and equity, which are critical for future climate policy.

Key Takeaways

•Paris Agreement's core: NDCs and universal participation.
•CBDR-RC remains a foundational principle for India.
•Climate finance is the biggest hurdle for developing nations.
•Global Stocktake indicates insufficient progress towards 1.5°C.
•India emphasizes equity and historical responsibility.

Different Perspectives

•Developed nations often emphasize the need for all countries, including large developing economies, to take more aggressive action.
•Developing nations, led by India, stress historical responsibility, the need for climate finance, and technology transfer from developed countries.
•Environmental activists often criticize the slow pace of action and the lack of binding enforcement mechanisms.

Related Concepts

UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol COP (Conference of Parties)Climate Justice Green Climate Fund Loss and Damage Fund Net Zero targets Carbon Sinks

The Paris Agreement, set to complete 10 years in November 2025, has significantly influenced global climate action. Initially focused on a top-down approach with binding targets, the narrative shifted to a bottom-up, nationally determined contributions (NDCs) model, emphasizing common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC). While the agreement successfully brought nearly all nations to the table, challenges persist in achieving the 1.5°C target, with current NDCs falling short.

The global stocktake at COP28 highlighted the need for accelerated action, increased climate finance, and a just transition. India, a key player, has consistently advocated for climate equity and historical responsibility, emphasizing that developed nations must lead in emissions reduction and provide adequate financial and technological support to developing countries. The core message is that while the Paris Agreement was a landmark, its implementation faces significant hurdles, particularly regarding finance and equitable burden-sharing.

Key Facts

Paris Agreement completes 10 years in November 2025

It shifted from a top-down to a bottom-up approach (NDCs)

Nearly all 198 parties to UNFCCC are signatories

Global Stocktake at COP28 (Dubai) highlighted insufficient progress

Developed nations committed to $100 billion annual climate finance, which has not been met

India's per capita emissions are significantly lower than developed countries

UPSC Exam Angles

International environmental agreements and their evolution

India's climate diplomacy and stance on global climate action

Climate finance mechanisms and challenges

Sustainable development goals and climate change mitigation/adaptation

Geopolitics of climate change and energy transition

Visual Insights

Paris Agreement at 10: Key Milestones & Challenges (2015-2025)

This timeline illustrates the journey of the Paris Agreement from its adoption to its 10th anniversary, highlighting critical events, shifts in climate narrative, and ongoing challenges, crucial for understanding global climate policy evolution.

The Paris Agreement marked a significant shift from the top-down, legally binding targets of the Kyoto Protocol to a more inclusive, bottom-up approach with Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). This evolution was driven by the need for broader participation from major emitters and a recognition of diverse national circumstances, while still aiming for ambitious climate goals. The past decade has seen both landmark achievements, like the establishment of the Loss and Damage Fund, and persistent challenges, particularly in climate finance and achieving the 1.5°C target.

1992UNFCCC adopted (established CBDR-RC principle)
1997Kyoto Protocol adopted (top-down, binding targets for developed nations)
2009Copenhagen Accord (Developed countries pledge $100B/year by 2020)
2015Paris Agreement adopted at COP21 (Shift to bottom-up NDCs, 1.5°C goal)
2016Paris Agreement enters into force (Nov 4)
2020First NDC cycle ends; $100B climate finance goal missed
2021COP26 Glasgow Climate Pact (Reaffirmed 1.5°C, called for enhanced NDCs)
2022COP27 Sharm El Sheikh (Loss and Damage Fund established; $100B goal reportedly met, 2 years late)
2023COP28 Dubai (First Global Stocktake concludes, Loss and Damage Fund operationalized, calls for transition away from fossil fuels)
2024COP29 Baku (Negotiations on New Collective Quantified Goal on Climate Finance (NCQG) continue, expected to be set)
2025Paris Agreement 10th Anniversary (Nov); Next round of updated NDCs due

Global Climate Action: Key Metrics & Progress (as of Jan 2026)

This dashboard provides a snapshot of critical statistics related to the Paris Agreement's goals and implementation challenges, offering a quick overview of the current state of global climate action.

Global Warming Target: 1.5°C
$100 Billion Climate Finance Goal: Met in 2022+2 years (from 2020 target)
Next NDC Submissions: By 2025
Global Stocktake Conclusion: COP28, 2023

Practice Questions (MCQs)

1. Consider the following statements regarding the evolution of international climate agreements: 1. The Kyoto Protocol adopted a top-down approach with legally binding emission reduction targets primarily for developed countries. 2. The Paris Agreement introduced a bottom-up approach where each country determines its own Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). 3. The principle of 'Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities' (CBDR-RC) was first articulated in the Paris Agreement. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A.1 only
B.2 only
C.1 and 2 only
D.1, 2 and 3

Show Answer

Answer: C

Statement 1 is correct. The Kyoto Protocol set binding targets for Annex I countries. Statement 2 is correct. The Paris Agreement shifted to a bottom-up, voluntary NDC approach. Statement 3 is incorrect. The principle of CBDR was first articulated in the 1992 UNFCCC, and CBDR-RC was reaffirmed and applied in the Paris Agreement, but not first introduced there.

2. In the context of global climate finance mechanisms, which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement, supporting developing countries in adaptation and mitigation efforts. 2. The Adaptation Fund primarily finances adaptation projects and programmes in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. 3. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) serves as a financial mechanism for several multilateral environmental agreements, including the UNFCCC and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A.1 only
B.2 and 3 only
C.1 and 3 only
D.1, 2 and 3

Show Answer

Answer: D

All three statements are correct. The GCF is indeed the primary financial mechanism for the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement. The Adaptation Fund focuses specifically on adaptation projects for vulnerable developing countries. The GEF is a long-standing financial mechanism for multiple environmental conventions, including UNFCCC, CBD, and others.

3. Regarding the Global Stocktake (GST) under the Paris Agreement, consider the following statements: 1. The GST is a periodic review mechanism to assess the collective progress towards achieving the long-term goals of the Paris Agreement. 2. The first GST, concluded at COP28, indicated that current Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) are on track to limit global warming to 1.5°C. 3. The GST process aims to inform countries in updating and enhancing their NDCs for the subsequent cycles. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A.1 only
B.1 and 2 only
C.1 and 3 only
D.1, 2 and 3

Show Answer

Answer: C

Statement 1 is correct. The GST is designed as a periodic assessment. Statement 2 is incorrect. The first GST at COP28 explicitly highlighted that current NDCs are *not* sufficient and fall far short of the 1.5°C target, calling for accelerated action. Statement 3 is correct. A key purpose of the GST is to provide input for countries to strengthen their climate action plans.

4. Which of the following best describes India's consistent stance on climate action and the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC)?

A.India advocates for uniform emission reduction targets for all nations, irrespective of their historical emissions or development status.
B.India emphasizes that developed nations must take the lead in emissions reduction and provide adequate financial and technological support to developing countries.
C.India believes that CBDR-RC is no longer relevant in the context of the Paris Agreement's bottom-up approach, advocating for a 'common responsibility' only.
D.India prioritizes rapid economic growth over climate action, viewing stringent climate targets as an impediment to its development goals.

Show Answer

Answer: B

Option B accurately reflects India's long-standing position. India consistently advocates for climate equity, emphasizing historical responsibility of developed nations for cumulative emissions and their obligation to lead in reductions and provide support. Options A and C contradict India's stance on differentiation and equity. Option D is an oversimplification and misrepresentation; India has ambitious climate targets but insists on equitable burden-sharing.