Judiciary

The Supreme Court of India is the highest court in the country. It has original, appellate, and advisory jurisdiction. Original jurisdiction means it can hear certain cases directly, like disputes between the central government and states, or between states themselves. Appellate jurisdiction means it can hear appeals from lower courts. Advisory jurisdiction means the President can seek its opinion on any question of law or fact of public importance.

The High Courts are the principal courts of civil and criminal jurisdiction in each state. They are subordinate to the Supreme Court. They hear appeals from lower courts and also have the power of judicial review over state laws.

The subordinate courts, including district courts and other lower courts, form the base of the judicial system. They handle the majority of cases at the local level.

Judicial review is the power of the judiciary to examine the constitutional validity of laws passed by the legislature and executive orders issued by the government. If a law violates the Constitution, the judiciary can declare it unconstitutional and void. This power ensures that the government acts within the bounds of the Constitution.

Public Interest Litigation (PIL) allows any citizen or organization to approach the court on behalf of the public interest. This has broadened access to justice and allowed the judiciary to address issues of social and environmental concern. For example, a PIL might be filed to address pollution in a river or to protect the rights of marginalized communities.

The Collegium system is how judges are appointed to the Supreme Court and High Courts. It's a system where a body of senior judges recommends names for appointment. While intended to ensure judicial independence, it has also been criticized for a lack of transparency and accountability.

Contempt of court is when someone disrespects the authority of the court or interferes with the administration of justice. This can include disobeying court orders or making statements that undermine the court's integrity. The judiciary has the power to punish individuals for contempt of court.

Constitutional morality is the idea that the Constitution's values and principles should guide the interpretation and application of laws, even if they conflict with popular opinion or public morality. A Supreme Court judge recently emphasized that constitutional morality should outweigh majoritarian views. For example, striking down a law criminalizing homosexuality was based on constitutional morality, even though it might have conflicted with some people's moral beliefs.

Judicial independence is the principle that the judiciary should be free from interference from the other branches of government or from private interests. This is essential for ensuring that judges can make impartial decisions based on the law, without fear of reprisal.

The Doctrine of Basic Structure, established in the *Kesavananda Bharati* case, holds that certain fundamental features of the Constitution cannot be amended by Parliament. This protects the core principles of the Constitution from being altered by political majorities. For example, the secular nature of India is considered part of the basic structure.

The writ jurisdiction of the High Courts and Supreme Court allows them to issue orders (writs) to enforce fundamental rights. These writs include *habeas corpus* (to produce a person in custody), *mandamus* (to compel a public authority to perform its duty), *prohibition* (to prevent a lower court from exceeding its jurisdiction), *certiorari* (to quash the order of a lower court), and *quo warranto* (to inquire into the legality of a person holding public office).